INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

  An OSI layer, as defined by the OSI model, represents one of the seven hierarchical levels within the model's conceptual framework, each layer encapsulating specific functionalities and protocols related to data communication and transmission. Beginning with the physical layer (Layer 1) at the bottom and culminating with the application layer (Layer 7) at the top, the OSI model delineates the various stages and processes involved in transferring data between networked devices. Each layer within the OSI model operates independently of the others while interacting and exchanging information with adjacent layers through well-defined interfaces and protocols. By organizing network communication into distinct layers, the OSI model promotes standardization, modularity, and interoperability, facilitating the development, implementation, and management of complex networking systems and technologies. Additionally, the OSI model serves as a conceptual framework for understanding and analy

  A network bridge is a networking device or software component that connects two or more network segments together, allowing them to operate as a single network. The purpose of a network bridge is to facilitate communication between devices on different network segments while maintaining the logical separation between them. The Network Interface Card (NIC), often referred to as a network adapter or network interface controller, serves as a critical hardware component within modern computing devices, enabling seamless communication between a computer or device and the network it's connected to through its multifaceted functionalities. These functions encompass not only managing the transmission and reception of data but also encompass providing a distinctive MAC address, crucial for identifying the device within the network infrastructure, thus playing an indispensable role in ensuring efficient and reliable connectivity within networked environments. A modem, short for modulato

  A hub operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model and is the simplest form of networking device that connects multiple devices in a network. When a packet arrives at a hub, it is broadcast to all devices connected to the hub, regardless of whether the destination device is the intended recipient, leading to network congestion and inefficient bandwidth usage. Hubs are considered obsolete and have largely been replaced by switches. A switch operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and connects multiple devices in a network. Unlike a hub, a switch intelligently forwards packets only to the device for which the packet is intended, utilizing MAC addresses to make forwarding decisions. This reduces network congestion and improves bandwidth utilization. Switches are commonly used in Ethernet networks to create LANs (Local Area Networks). A router operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model and is used to connect multiple networks together,

A computer network is a highly sophisticated system strategically designed to interconnect multiple nodes, creating a dynamic framework that enables seamless communication and facilitates the efficient sharing of information and resources among its constituent elements. This intricate network architecture involves a diverse array of essential components, each playing a crucial role in ensuring the functionality and effectiveness of the overall system.   1. Computers: At the heart of a computer network are the digital entities known as computers. These versatile devices possess the capability to accept input data, process it using predefined algorithms and data structures, and generate meaningful output. In the context of a network, computers play a pivotal role in facilitating data interchange and adopting a distributed programming model for parallel processing. Their functionalities extend beyond mere data processing to include tasks such as data storage, transformation, and retrieval

  There are 6 types of topology   1. Bus Topology The bus topology connects each device on the network to a common main cable, creating a single communication path for all nodes. One point transmits data along a single route to another point. We cannot transmit data in both ways. Linear Bus Topology is the term used for this topology when it has exactly two endpoints and is primarily utilized for small networks. 2. Ring Topology The devices in a ring topology, such as computers, printers, or servers, are interconnected in a circular or ring-like pattern, which forms a closed loop. Two other devices link each device in the Ring topology., positioned on either side. The last device in the chain connects to the first device, completing the circuit. Each device in a ring topology is linked to two other devices, one on either side, forming a continuous ring or loop. In a ring topology, data is transmitted in one direction around the circle, with each device on the network reading and passin

Computer networks are classified into different categories based on their size, coverage, and intended use. The four primary types of computer networks include: 1. Personal Area Network (PAN):  A PAN is the smallest type of network, typically covering a short range, usually within a few meters.   It's designed for connecting devices like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and peripherals (e.g., Bluetooth-enabled headphones or keyboards) in a personal space. Common technologies for PANs include Bluetooth and Wi-Fi Direct. 2. Local Area Network (LAN):  LANs encompass a relatively small geographical area, such as a single building, office, or campus. They connect devices within this limited area, facilitating resource sharing like file sharing, printing, and internet access. Common technologies used in LANs include Ethernet and Wi-Fi. 3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):  A MAN covers a larger geographical area than a LAN but is still confined to a specific city or metropolitan region. It