INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

  An OSI layer, as defined by the OSI model, represents one of the seven hierarchical levels within the model's conceptual framework, each layer encapsulating specific functionalities and protocols related to data communication and transmission. Beginning with the physical layer (Layer 1) at the bottom and culminating with the application layer (Layer 7) at the top, the OSI model delineates the various stages and processes involved in transferring data between networked devices. Each layer within the OSI model operates independently of the others while interacting and exchanging information with adjacent layers through well-defined interfaces and protocols. By organizing network communication into distinct layers, the OSI model promotes standardization, modularity, and interoperability, facilitating the development, implementation, and management of complex networking systems and technologies. Additionally, the OSI model serves as a conceptual framework for understanding and analy

  A network bridge is a networking device or software component that connects two or more network segments together, allowing them to operate as a single network. The purpose of a network bridge is to facilitate communication between devices on different network segments while maintaining the logical separation between them. The Network Interface Card (NIC), often referred to as a network adapter or network interface controller, serves as a critical hardware component within modern computing devices, enabling seamless communication between a computer or device and the network it's connected to through its multifaceted functionalities. These functions encompass not only managing the transmission and reception of data but also encompass providing a distinctive MAC address, crucial for identifying the device within the network infrastructure, thus playing an indispensable role in ensuring efficient and reliable connectivity within networked environments. A modem, short for modulato

  A hub operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model and is the simplest form of networking device that connects multiple devices in a network. When a packet arrives at a hub, it is broadcast to all devices connected to the hub, regardless of whether the destination device is the intended recipient, leading to network congestion and inefficient bandwidth usage. Hubs are considered obsolete and have largely been replaced by switches. A switch operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and connects multiple devices in a network. Unlike a hub, a switch intelligently forwards packets only to the device for which the packet is intended, utilizing MAC addresses to make forwarding decisions. This reduces network congestion and improves bandwidth utilization. Switches are commonly used in Ethernet networks to create LANs (Local Area Networks). A router operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model and is used to connect multiple networks together,